During the 200 or more years of Tang -Tubo bilateral relations, and despite the wars that often occurred owing to conflict between the ruling classes of each side, harmony and friendliness nevertheless prevailed. So what were the reasons behind this friendly TangTubo relationship? This article attempts to generalize four factors and briefly discuss each one.

l. "He-He" culture

The so-called "He - He"culture is the essence of Chinese humanism, and at the same time constitutes Wu Fengzhen the brilliance of Chinese traditional civilization. The first "He" refers to concord, harmony, peace and geniality, and the second stands for convergence, integration, alliance and merger. Used in conjunction, they not only stress unity and corporation, but also mean centripetal force and cohesiveness." T Prof. Xing Bensi states: "Concerning the understanding of the meaning of the Chinese "He-He" culture, we must point out that while ancient Chinese thinkers placed much emphasis on "He-He" , it does not mean that they overlooked the innate contradictions of contemporary events and the need for necessary struggles against them, nor does it mean that no contradictions existed among different societies. Rather, by overcoming these contradictions, a state of balance, harmony, coorperation, and He-He was reached."2 China's "He-He" cultural tradition has a long history The two words were found carved on bone relics and bronze artifacts more than 2000 years ago. Prior to the Qin period (221-206 B. C.), the Confucians had already identified "He-He" as meaning the nucleus of human spirituality.

TheAnalects say: "In the practice of rites, 'He' is most precious"3 and Mencius states: "Opportune time is inferior to geographical advantage; geographical advantage is inferior to human harmony." 4 These are frequently quoted passages. Xunzi's definition of "He-He" is:

"The union of heaven and earth that created all things; the connection of'yin' and 'yang' that gives rise to changes; the right mixture of human nature with the necessary disposition that pacifies all societies." (In Chinese philosophy and medicine "yin" means feminine and negative and "yang" means masculine and positive.)

In the yth century A.D. certain Han classics and Confucian school culture were introduced into Tubo through Princess Wencheng's and Princess Jincheng's marriage into the Tubo kingdom. One such classic, the Ti Jing (Classic of Changes), which contains the essence of "He-He culture," was translated into the Tubo language and was called "Bo Tang", meaning the "Tang Classic of Changes". The translated version was later compiled into the Han Books: ShuFuRangFa (methods of devil eradication).6 Besides Confucian disciplines, Buddhist culture also contains the concept of "He-He" . During the Dong Han (East Han dynasty) period, Indian Buddhism was introduced into China's central plain regions. Karma, as the fundamental theoretical basis of Buddhism, combined with Yi Zhuan's belief that: "The family that accumulates moral merits will certainly have much to celebrate; the family that accumulates evil will certainly have much to suffer," The twin beliefs not only exerted influence on the concepts of good and evil on China's Central Plain people, but also enriched their ethical traditions.7 During the reign of Tube's Songtsen Gampo, Princess Bhrikuti from Nepal brought with her to Lhasa a lifesize statue of the eight- year-old Sakyamuni, and when Princess Wencheng went to Tibet, she brought with her a life-size statue of Sakyamuni at the age of twelve. These two statues marked the introduction of Buddhism into Tubo from two different geographical directions and Songtsen Gampo was greatly influenced.

Temples were built, Buddhist sutras were translated, and Buddhism was earnestly propagated in Tubo territory. In actual practice, Tibetan people "Tibetanized" Buddhism and made it the kernel of Tibetan culture (the true formulation of Tibetan Buddhism occurred, of course, during the post-propagation period). Within Buddhism, the concept of Karma and "accumulating merit" concurs with the "He-He" culture, which also had a profound influence on the ethical morals of the Tubo people, and "evolved into a criteria of behavior encompassing benevolence, goodness, contentment with one's lot, justice, tolerance, modesty, honesty, harmony, responsibility and contribution that the whole Tibetan people strive to achieve. Over the course of history, this foreign moral norm gradually became an inherent cultural psychological feature." 8 The friendly and harmonious relationship between the Tang and Tubo embodies, in terms of relations between nationalities, the ideology of "He-He" culture that advocates geniality, tolerance, harmony and cohesiveness. In the 3rd year of the Changqing Period (823 A.D.), the Uncle -Nephew Monument of Alliance was set up in front oftheJokhang Monastery in Lhasa, and the "He-He" concept was solemnly expressed by an oath of alliance: "The two sovereigns, uncle and enphew, having come to an agreement that their territories be united as one."and "to restore the former blood closeness and friendly neighborhood for the happiness of both peoples, sign this alliance of great peace to last for eternity!" The Uncle -Nephew Monumeht of Alliance was the fruition of Chinese "He-He" culure in relations between the Tang and Tubo, and it was also one of the great treasures of Chinese "He-He" culture.

2. Forming Alliances through Marriage

In the i^th year of the Zhenguan Period of the Tang Dynasty (641 A.D.), Emperor Tang Taizong formed an alliance with Tubo by marrying Princess Wencheng of the Tang imperial clan to Songtsen Gampo, king of the Tubo Dynasty The formality and pomp of the engagement ceremony were so grand that it was a rare event even in the imperial family. Songtsen Gampo dispatched a Tubo envoy, Chief Minister Gar Tongtsen, to Chang'an (capital of the Tang Dynasty) to receive the Princess and escort her to Tubo for the wedding.

"Songtsen Gampo dispatched his Chief Minister Gar Tongtsen to pay respects and a tribute of five thousand taels (a unit of weight for gold and silver) of gold and hundreds of precious treasures to Emperor Tang Taizong."9 Gar Tongtsen enjoyed the trust of Songtsen Gampo, and occupied the most important position in Tubo. From historical records, it is known that "Gar Tongtsen was a man of wisdom and intelligence, and it was mainly due to him that Tubo was able to subdue and annex various tribes and become the strongest country in that region." ro After Gar Tongtsen arrived in Chang'an, Emperor Tang Taizong hoped to betroth his granddaughter Duanshi, daughter of the eldest Princess Lang Xie, to him. Gar Tongtsen's answer to the proposal was meaningful and thought-provoking. He declined, saying: "Your Majesty, your humble subject is already married in Tubo, and my wife was betrothed to me by my parents. I, your subject,could not bear the sadness of my wife, as well as that of my parents, if I were to take another wife. Most important of all, my Tsenpo has not paid his respects to the Princess. As one of his subjects, how dare I think about marrying at this time" "On hearing this, Tang Taizong was delighted and praised him."

These words were especially endearing to Tang Taizong, as they accorded with the Confucian criterion of ethical morals between a monarch and his subjects. This incident demonstrates that Gar Tongtsen was fully aware of the feudal ethical morals of the Central Plains, despite being illiterate. It may also be inferred that he had made elaborate preparations before going to Chang'an, and his comprehension of protocol helped him to act in a way that concurred with Tang Taizong's mentality, and put him in Tang Taizong's good graces. His excellent conduct during his stay in Chang'an also deepened understanding and friendly relations between Tang and Tubo.

According to recorded historical events, Thon-mi Sam bhota, a well known Tubo scholar, accompanied Gar Tongtsen to Chang'an. Thon-mi Sam bhota was profoundly learned, and was said to have been ordered to devise a Tibetan writing system. An adviser of such great learning sent by Songtsen Gampo to accompany Gar Tongtsen to Chang'an was further insurance against any breaches of ceremony and etiquette. From this careful arrangement, it may be concluded that Sontsen Gampo attached great importance to this marriage proposal misson. From the Tang point of view, it was also quite unprecedented that Li Daozong, who was King ofJiangxia and Minister of Rites, should be the bride's chaperone. Li Daozong, who styled himself Chengfan, was one of the "kings" (land-grant princes) of the imperial clan. At the age of 17, he followed Li Shimin (Tang Taizong' given name) into battle. He was well versed in the art of war, and Li Shimin highly regarded his ability. Once, when Li Daozong was wounded in the foot during a battle, Tang Taizong himself: "tended Li Daoxong's wound, and bestowed on him an imperial meal." 12 Li Daozong had a very high reputation in the ruling cabinet of the time. Historical records say that greater importance was attached to both Li Danzong and Xiaogong Kunji, King (another landed prince) of Hejian than to any other King in the imperial clan.13 Li Daozong had held the position of Minister of Rites, and was therefore quite familiar with matters of diplomacy. Having carefully seleced the most suitable candidate, Tnag Taizong made the decision that Li Daozong should escort Princess Wencheng into Tubo.

This alliance by marriage was sumptuously grand, and Songtsen Gampo sent a betrothal gift of chests of gold, while the dowry for Princess Wencheng from the Tang court was a huge amount of silk cloth and other articles. The Tang also sent craftsmen who specialized in wine-brewing, roller and grindstone making, and paper and ink -making to Tubo, and also silkworms. Much advanced production technology was thus introduced into Tubo, where the highly developed culture and advanced economy of the Central Plains was publicly displayed. Upon the arrival of Princess Wencheng and her escort envoy at Bohai (in present-day Maduo County, Qinghai Province), Songtsen Gampo, came personally to meet her, and expressed how sight of the gorgeous dress of the Tang people had widened his horizons. He respectfully paid the salute of a "son-in-law" to the envoy of the Tang Dynasty, and said cordially and proudly: "My forefathers have not had a chance of intermarriage with your great country Now that I am lucky enough to have the great Tang Princess as my wife,I shall build a castle for her to live in, so that our descendants may always remember this great event."14 Afterwards, "He himself gave up the thick felt and fur clothes that were normally his dress, and began to wear embroidered silk clothes. He also began to admire the magnificence of the Central Plains and decided to send children of tribal chiefs to the Central Plains to learn Han classics, and also invited Han people of great learning to teach him the correct way to write memorials to the throne".15 Prior to Songtsen Gampo's death, during a period that stretched from the i^th year of the Zhenguan Period (641 A.D.) to the first year of the Yonghui Period (6^0 A.D.), Tang and Tubo relations were friendly and harmonious. The alliance by marriage had enabled the Tang and Tubo to set up a close "nephew and uncle" relationship. Tang Taizong, Songtsen Gampo, Gar Tongtsen, Li Daozong, Thon- mi Sam bhota, Feng Dexia and certain other people were the founders of this friendly relationship.

In the year 703 A.D., Tsenpo Dusong Mangje of Tubo died. His son, Tsenpo Tride Tsugtsen, succeeded the throne at the age of 7 years old; the boy's grandmother, Trimalo, served as Regent during his minority She sent envoys on several occasions requesting animperial princess of the Tang Dynasty. In the fourth Year oftheJinglong Period (710 A.D.), Emperor Tang Zhongzong agreed to marry Princess Jincheng, daughter of Li Shouli, King of Yangyong of the imperial clan, to Tesenpo Tride Tsugtsen of Tubo. Emperor Tang Zhongzong himself escorted Princess Jincheng to Sniping County (in today's Xingping County, Shanxi Province). This alliance by marriage, from the viewpoint of Tubo, was forged in order to stabilize Tubo and to gain support for Tride Tsugtsen's power, through strengthening friendly relations with the Tang Dynasty Prior to Tride Tsugtsen's accession, there had been strong rivalry for the throne among Dusong Mangje's sons, and there was unrest on Tube's southern border.

From the Tang Dynasty viewpoint, this friendly relationship could be consolidated by means of a marriage alliance, and avoid wars between Tang and Tubo. Tang Zhongzong expressed this sentiment in his edict proposing the marriage of Princess Jincheng to the Tubo Kindom: "For many years, and on many occasions, Tsenpo and his grandmother Trimalo have requested that I propose a princess in marriage, in order to establish a good relationship between Tang and Tubo. It appears that they still wish to renew our past kinship relationship. Princess Jincheng, a daughter of the sovereign, grew up in the palace chambers, and will now go on a long journey. The Throne shall miss her.

But as the parent (China refers to the Emperor and the Queen as the parents of the nation) of the great masses, the Throne must consider their interests. If I agree to marry my daughter to the Tubo kingdom, the people of Tang can have good relations with those of Tubo, the border between Tang and Tubo will be tranquil, and our soldiers need not go to war. The Throne bears the heavy burden of this matter of vital importance to the Tang Dynasty." I6 The years 710 to 741 (the 29th year of the Kaiyuan Period of the Tang Dynasty), some 30 years after Princess Jincheng had married the Tubo Tsenpo, are regarded as the strongest of the Tubo era. Tride Tsugtsen was very young when he succeeded the throne, and had to follow the advice of the minister for military affairs until he grew up. Even in adulthood, the generals who guarded the border often deceived him ,and it was for this reason that many wars between the Tang and Tubo occurred over Helong and the Western Regions. It is emphatically pointed out that the frequent conflicts that occurred between the Tang and the Tubo is not denied, even though the existence of a good relationship between the two powers is emphasized. As there was a feudal class system, and class struggles within such feudal societies, the conflicts between different ethnic groups were mere reflections of class struggles at different nationalities' level. It is completely preposterous to assert that there were no hostilities between the ancient nationalities.

The great contribution made by Princess Jincheng was, therefore, that whenever wars between the Tang and Tubo could not be avoided, she would make full use of her capacity to promote mutual understanding of each side's differences and intentions. She did her best to mediate contradctions, and exerted all her effort to alleviate and eliminate them, or to avoid their exacerbation. She sent three memorials to Emperor Tang Xuanzong, reflecting her deep desire for good relations between Tang and Tubo, helped to bring about the second peaceful alliance between Tang and Tubo through her unremitting efforts, and the third peaceful alliance by delimiting the boundary at Mountain Chiling. Tride Tsugtsen also sent three letters to Tang Xuanzong expressing his good wishes and hopes for restoration of the past friendliness: "Your late emperor was my uncle and I am his nephew. When he agreed that Princess Jincheng should marry me, Tang and Tubo became one family, and all the masses under heaven felt happy and safe."17 The uncle and nephew analogy, established twice on the basis of alliance by marriage, exerted tremendous and far-reaching influence of the whole Tang-Tubo relationship. There were later periods of friendship and also of differences, and sometimes conflicts occurred, but the overall relationship was one of uncle and nephew, and any differences were similar to those between members of the family of this uncle and nephew.